Ethnoveterinary Medicine and Ethnopharmacology in the Main Transhumance Areas of Castilla-La Mancha (Spain).

In this study, we document the practices of ethnoveterinary medicine and ethnopharmacology in the context of traditional transhumance routes that cross Castilla La Mancha from north to south. Transhumance is a type of grazing system that allows advantage to be taken of winter pastures (wintering places) and summer pastures by seasonal movement, twice a year, of cattle and their shepherds. Our study is based on over 200 interviews (from 1994 to 2021) conducted in 86 localities along eight major transhumance routes "cañadas reales" and 25 other minor transhumance routes, and involved 210 informants, 89 single and 121 groups, and 562 individuals, of which the majority were men. Sixty-three recorded pathologies and their treatments are discussed. Two hundred and two species and substances, belonging to 92 different families, have been recorded from the interviews, of which most are plants. Amid the toxic plant species, the most cited in the interviews are Erophaca baetica (L.) Boiss., Lupinus angustifolius L., and Oenanthe crocata L. Some of the species reported as toxic were reservoirs of pathogens or markers for dangerous areas. One of the fields most widely covered in our study is that of prevention, protection, and control of endo- and ectoparasites. This control is carried out mainly by means of aromatic plants. As a polyvalent species, Daphne gnidium L. is outstanding, and it contributes one-tenth of the records of our study. Among the species of fundamentally therapeutic use, Cistus ladanifer L. stands out by far. Principal Coordinate Analysis (PCoA) based on the repertories of ingredients, separates the routes whose most important sections run through siliceous terrain with its characteristic flora, especially in the provinces of Ciudad Real and Toledo, from the routes that run through the limestone terrain of Albacete and Cuenca, and link the Eastern Mancha and the "Serranía de Cuenca" with Andalusia and the Spanish Levant.

The Renaissance of Wild Food Plants: Insights from Tuscany (Italy).

This paper provides an overview of wild food plants traditionally used in the gastronomy of Tuscany, an Italian region with high biological diversity and whose cultural heritage is well known. Forty-nine bibliographic sources, including five unpublished studies, were reviewed. A list of species with ecological characteristics, plant parts used, use category (food, liquor, or seasoning), methods of preparation (raw or cooked), and recipes is presented. The use of 357 taxa (3711 use reports, URs), was recorded, belonging to 215 genera and 72 botanical families. Over the total taxa, 12 are new for Tuscany, 52 seem not to be present in other Italian regions, and 54 were not detected in the consulted European ethnobotanical literature. Of these taxa, 324 (3117 URs) were used as food, while 49 (178 URs) and 81 (416 URs) were used for liquor and seasoning, respectively. Of the 17 different food recipes, cooked vegetables constituted the largest group, followed by salads, omelets, snacks, and fillings. The chemical composition of the recorded food plants and the possible safety risks associated to their consumption, as well as their traditional medicinal use, are also shown. This review highlights the richness of ethnobotanical knowledge in Tuscany. Such biocultural heritage can be a "source of inspiration" for agriculture. As a reservoir of potential new crops, wild edible flora may contribute to the development of emerging horticultural sectors such as vertical farming and microgreens production. Moreover, the nutrient content and healthy properties of many wild food plants reported in this study has the ability to meet consumer demand for functional foods.

A Comparison Study on Traditional Mixtures of Herbal Teas Used in Eastern Mediterranean Area.

Multipurpose herbal teas with numerous ingredients, in which flowers are the main component, are common in the traditional medicine and pharmacy of Greece and the Eastern Mediterranean countries. In this study, we combine ethnobotany and ethnopharmacology field work techniques and botany and pharmacognosy laboratory methods for the study of traditional herbal mixtures with flowers, we identify their botanical ingredients and record the local medicinal uses of these mixtures, in Greece, Lebanon, Syria, Iran and Turkey. These, and their industrial versions, are analyzed, using morphological and multivariate analysis techniques in order to determine marker species, relevant patterns of combination and local styles. The medicinal properties attributed to the different flowers are discussed in relation with their role in the mixtures. These blends are consumed for their relaxing, digestive, and anti-infective properties. These mixtures are not consumed as a treatment when one is sick but rather to avoid getting sick, as a preventive measure. The formulations can reach forty ingredients (sarantha in Greek, arbain in Arabic language of Palestine), usually entire or coarsely chopped in the more traditional formulations, leading to extreme variability of individual doses. We ask what biological signification this randomness can have. To give an answer requires new and more comprehensive pharmacological approaches. The flowers of Rosaceae, Asteraceae, Lamiaceae, Malvaceae and Fabaceae species characterize these mixtures in which other materials (roots, leaves, and fruits) and other species are present as well. Flowers of some species, particularly of Fabaceae, are exclusively used in mixtures, and their use in monospecific herbal teas is not yet recorded. We draw attention on the urgent need in exhaustively recording in Greece and the Near East, the formulation and use of traditional herbal mixtures and their numerous local variants. To consider these mixtures and the contribution of flowers (most mixtures receive the general name of tea of flowers) merits further extensive study.

Ethnopharmacology in the Upper Guadiana River area (Castile-La Mancha, Spain).

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: Determining traditional remedies for human pathologies is relevant, when compared with the standard materia medica of the pharmacopoeias and dietary supplement databases, because we can assess the species and uses that have been previously studied and target understudied species for further pharmacological investigation. BACKGROUND: The aim of this study was to systematically record and analyze medicinal uses of natural resources (Plantae, Animalia, Fungi and minerals), mostly local, in the territories adjoining the upper Guadiana River and its tributaries. We were particularly interested in recording resources and pathologies linked to wetland areas, especially in the National Parks Las Tablas de Daimiel and Cabañeros. Wetlands are interesting because they present a double face in relation with human health: Wetlands furnish hydration, safe water, nutrition, and medicinal resources; are places from which people derive their livelihood. However wetlands are also sites of exposure to pollution or toxicants, and infectious diseases; and sites of physical hazards. We wanted to identify procedures for preparation of medicinal formulae and routes of administration. We also intended to detect whether a geographical pattern exists or not in our records in relation to the use of local resources. METHODS: We used semi-structured interviews with one-to-one informants or groups, from 1998 to 2018. Raw data were introduced in a Firebird database and analyzed. To identify ingredients and pathologies we consulted local floras and epidemiological literature. Finally, we compared documented pathologies, remedies and ingredients in the historical context of medicinal uses of natural resources in Castile-La Mancha and especially in Ciudad Real. RESULTS: 126 pathologies and 220 species furnishing ingredients have been recorded from the interviews. In total, 188 are plants and 20 animals. The most commonly used species include Malva sylvestris, Phlomis lychnitis, Genista tridentata and Thymus mastichina. Most records refer to flowers, or fruits, of locally available plant species, classified as Mediterranean, European or widespread that belong to the Lamiaceae, Compositae or Leguminosae. Ingredients which are collected in open shrublands, known as "garrigue", and dry grasslands furnish a relevant proportion of records while the imported ingredients remain marginal. The contribution of wetlands, riverine habitats and irrigated fields and gardens as a source of medicinal resources is 36% of the records. It is relatively high considering its limited presence in terms of total extension within the study area. The most frequently reported diseases are respiratory, gastrointestinal, dermatological and infectious or parasitic. CONCLUSIONS: Along the Guadiana River in the Ciudad Real province exists a wide and deep knowledge of traditional remedies for the treatment of common pathologies, based fundamentally on the use of local flora, fauna and mineral resources. The uses and ingredients documented are useful for further pharmacological investigation to improve health care for a wide range of pathologies.

Ethnopharmacological study of Sephardic remedies in the 19th century: The "Livro de Milizinas".

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: The Sephardic or Judeo-Spanish communities kept a cultural heritage extremely relevant which is recognizable through the peculiar form of their language and practices. Medicine was one of the main professional activities among Jews of Spain before their expulsion in 1492. We expected to find ingredients and recipes in the Sephardic traditional medicine related to classical medicine and to modern ethnopharmacology of Spain, but also influenced by the host countries. Recipes for specific diseases could be compared with modern ethnopharmacology. Although the basic language of the recipes is Judeo-Spanish, it presents local variants and names which are not only dialectal Spanish, but also Turkish, Hebrew or Bosnian. METHODS: The main source of information for Sephardic folk medicine are the specimens of the "Livro de Milizinas" printed in Thessaloniki and Smyrna (Izmir) during the 19th century. Others are some documents on pharmacy conserved in Bosnia associated to the Papo family of Sephardic Aktars or Attars (Ottoman herbalists) and the oral tradition in the Sephardic communities of Asia, Europe and the Americas. In order to analyze these formularies, we have studied the recipes in eleven different sources systematized in an Excel® 2010 book. We focused on formulas that are not merely rituals instead contain specific ingredients and pathologies. Specific dictionaries were generated in Excel® 2010, to standardize names of ingredients and pathologies. RESULTS: In the 502 complete recipes and variants studied, 107 pathologies and 154 different ingredients appear. Among ingredients, 93 are plants, 38 animals and 23 mineral substances. The most common pathologies in the recipes correspond to infectious diseases, headache, epistaxis, parasites and the "espanto". These ingredients received 397 different vernacular names, being prevalent those in Spanish (303) followed by those in Turkish. Preparations recorded are simple, easily made at home, not requiring special tools or hardware. In studies dated 1845 in Bulgaria the forms of preparation and administration are similar. Topic preparations externally applied are prevalent in numbers doubling the oral administration on the contrary of modern ethnopharmacology studies in Thessaloniki where dominate internal uses over external ones. The books of medicines of Smyrna and Thessaloniki are very similar, if not almost identical. The "Livro de Milizinas" constitute a peculiar Sephardic text within the Ottoman style of medicine. The proximity in the analyses with Ottoman sources (Ottoman pharmacopoeias, Turkish Aktar shops and Medieval Cairo Jewish pharmacopoeia) is due to the high proportion of ingredients in common. After excluding animal and mineral ingredients of the analyses, modern ethnobotanical records from Greece and Turkey appear closer to the Sephardic main sources. The rest of Sephardic sources with notably smaller lists of ingredients represent fragments of mostly oral transmitted tradition and treat pathologies such as evil eye or "espanto". The recipes of the Sephardic of Bosnia comprise pathologies such as plague, cholera, typhus or gastroenteritis. Ingredients, largely of plant origin, to 93, are still in use in phytotherapy and/or local medical-pharmaceutical ethnobotany in Turkey or Greece. CONCLUSIONS: The Sephardic materia medica presented in the "Livro de Milizinas" is eclectic, adapted to an urban environment and to the prevalent pathologies of the second half of the 19th century, within the main cultural framework of the Ottoman Empire but with peculiarities characteristic of Sephardic Culture. These can be traced back to the period immediately after the expulsion of Sephardic from Spain. Their relationships with other modern sources are scarce, even in terms of pathologies.

Is there nothing new under the sun? The influence of herbals and pharmacopoeias on ethnobotanical traditions in Albacete (Spain).

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: This paper has two overarching aims: (1) presenting the results of studying the Albacete tariff of medicines of 1526 and (2) broadly analyzing the origin and influences of medicinal traditional knowledge in the region of Albacete, Spain. We use historical and modern literature that may have influenced this knowledge. Our primary goal was to determine the ingredients used in the pharmacy in the 16th century CE in Albacete through the analysis of the tariff, and our secondary goal was to investigate until when ingredients and uses present in pharmacy and herbals persisted in later periods. METHODS: The identity of medicines and ingredients was determined by analyzing contemporary pharmacopoeias and classical pharmaceutical references. We analyzed further 21 sources (manuscripts, herbals, and books of medicines, pharmacopoeias, pharmacy inventories, and modern ethnobotanical records) for the presence/absence of ingredients and complex formulations of the tariff. Using factorial and cluster analysis and Bayesian inference applied to evolution models (reversible-jump Markov chain Monte Carlo), we compared textual sources. Finally, we analyzed the medicinal uses of the top 10 species in terms of frequency of citation to assess the dependence of modern ethnobotanical records on Renaissance pharmacy and herbals, and, ultimately, on Dioscorides. RESULTS: In Albacete 1526, we determined 101 medicines (29 simple drugs and 72 compound medicines) comprising 187 ingredients (85% botanical, 7.5% mineral, and 7.5% zoological substances). All composed medicines appear standardized in the pharmacopoeias, notably in the pharmacopoeia of Florence from 1498. However, most were no longer in use by 1750 in the pharmacy, and were completely absent in popular herbal medicine in Albacete 1995 as well as in Alta Valle del Reno (Italy) in 2014. Among the ingredients present in different formulation are the flowers of Rosa gallica, honey (Apis mellifera), the roots of Nardostachys jatamansi, and Convolvulus scammonia, pistils of Crocus sativus, grapes and raisins (Vitis vinifera), rhizomes of Zingiber officinale, bark of Cinnamomum verum, leaves and fruits of Olea europaea, mastic generally of Pistacia lentiscus, and wood of Santalum album. The statistical analysis of sources produces four well-separated clusters (Renaissance Herbals and Pharmacopoeias, Ethnobotany and Folk Medicine, Old phytotherapy, and Modern phytotherapy including Naturopathy) confirming our a priori classification. The clade of Renaissance Herbals and Pharmacopoeias appears separated from the rest in 97% of bootstrapped trees. Bayesian inference produces a tree determined by an initial set of two well-distinct core groups of ingredients: 64, locally used in Mediterranean Europe during centuries; and 45, imported, used in pharmacy during centuries. Complexity reached its maximum in Albacete 1526 and contemporary pharmacopoeias, gradually decreasing over time. The analysis of medicinal uses of the top 10 ingredients showed low coincidence between Dioscorides and different Renaissance herbals or medical treatises and of all of them with ethnobotany in Albacete. CONCLUSIONS: Regarding our question: is there something new under the sun? In some aspects, the answer is "No". The contrast between expensive drugs, highly valued medicines, and unappreciated local wild medicinal plants persists since the Salerno's school of medicine. Old medicine in Mediterranean Europe, as reflected by Albacete 1526 tariff of medicines, involved strict formulations and preferences for certain ingredients despite other ingredients locally available but underappreciated. This confirms the fact that any system of medicine does not get to use all available resources. Ethnobiological records of materia medica, in rural areas of Albacete, describe systems with a high degree of stability and resilience, where the use of local resources, largely wild but also cultivated, is predominant in contrast with the weight of imported exotic products in pharmacy.

Spirits and liqueurs in European traditional medicine: Their history and ethnobotany in Tuscany and Bologna (Italy).

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE AND BACKGROUND: Fermented drinks, often alcoholic, are relevant in many nutritional, medicinal, social, ritual and religious aspects of numerous traditional societies. The use of alcoholic drinks of herbal extracts is documented in classical pharmacy since the 1st century CE and it is often recorded in ethnobotanical studies in Europe, particularly in Italy, where are used for a wide range of medicinal purposes. Formulations and uses represent a singular tradition which responds to a wide range of environmental and cultural factors. AIMS: This research has two overarching aims To determine how long ancient uses, recipes and formulas for medicinal liqueurs from the pharmacopoeias and herbals of the 18th century persisted in later periods and their role in present ethnobotanical knowledge in areas of Tuscany and Emilia-Romagna (Italy). To trace other possible relationships among ancient and recent recipes of alcoholic beverages, from both popular and 'classic' (learned) sources in N-C Italy and neighboring areas. METHODS: The review of herbals and classical pharmacopoeias, and ethnobotanical field work in Alta Valle del Reno (Tuscany and Emilia Romagna, Italy) were followed of a systematic study of ingredients and medicinal uses with multivariate analysis techniques. RESULTS: The multivariate analysis clearly shows six different styles of preparing medicinal alcoholic beverages: 1. The medicinal wine formulae by Dioscorides (1st century CE). 2. The pharmacopoeias of Florence and Bologna in the 18th century CE. 3. The formularies of Santa Maria Novella and Castiglione (19th and early 20th centuries CE). 4. The ethnobotanical data from Appennino Tosco-Emiliano; home-made formulations based almost exclusively on the use of local resources. 5. Traditional recipes from NE Italy and Austria. 6. Traditional recipes from NW Italy, Emilia, and Provence (France). A total of 54 ingredients (29 fruits) from 48 species are used in different combinations and proportions in Alta Valle del Reno (Italy) to produce fermented beverages, liqueurs, distilled spirits and aromatized wines. Among these, 37 ingredients (33 species) are used as medicinal remedies. 15 ingredients (14 species) are also used to prepare specific medicinal liqueurs. Most are addressed to the treatment of diseases of the digestive system, dyspepsia in particular, followed by diseases of the respiratory system symptoms, not elsewhere classified and diseases of the skin and subcutaneous tissue, fundamentally of allergic origin. CONCLUSIONS: Although medicinal wines, liqueurs and spirits are recorded in numerous classical herbals and pharmacopoeias in Italy and other countries of Europe these show in terms of formulations and ingredients little influence in the ethnobotanical formulations recorded in Alta Valle del Reno (Italy), they apparently play no role in present ethnobotanical knowledge in Appennino Tosco-Emiliano and similarly in other areas of Italy, France and Austria. No (or very poor) persistence was found of ancient uses, recipes and formulas for medicinal liqueurs from pharmacopoeias and herbals of the 16th century CE in later periods in the formulas in use in the pharmacies of Tuscany. Popular recipes are strongly dependent on the availability of local wild and cultivated plants. Overall, Alta Valle del Reno ethnobotanical formulations of medicinal wines and spirits are extremely simple involving from one single ingredient to a few, which are locally produced or collected and selected among relevant medicinal resources used for a wide range of diseases in form of non-alcoholic aqueous extracts. Fruits gathered in the forests are the main ingredients which in this aspect show similarities with those from Tyrol (Austria). Medicinal liqueurs and wines are in analyzed ethnobotanical data mainly employed as digestives.

Production of an anthocyanin-rich food colourant from Thymus moroderi and its application in foods.

BACKGROUND: Anthocyanins and other polyphenols from flowers and bracts of Thymus sp. are studied. An anthocyanin-rich food colourant with interesting high antioxidant activity from Thymus moroderi has been obtained, and applied to colour foods. RESULTS: Anthocyanins and other polyphenols from T. moroderi and another five Thymus sp. were extracted in methanol/hydrochloric acid 0.1 mol L(-1) (50/50, v/v) 2 h stirring at 50 °C. They were identified and quantified by HPLC-PDA-MS and UHPLC-PDA-fluorescence, as total individual polyphenols. Total polyphenols were also determined. Flowers had higher anthocyanins and other polyphenols concentrations than bracts; for example, total polyphenols content of T. moroderi were 131.58 and 61.98 g GAE kg(-1) vegetal tissue, respectively. A liquid concentrated colourant was obtained from T. moroderi using water/citric acid as solvent. It was characterised and compared with other two commercial anthocyanin-rich food colourants from red grape skin and red carrot (colour strength of 1.7 and 3.6 AU, respectively). T. moroderi colourant had 1.2 AU colour strength, and high storage stability (>97.1% remaining colour after 110 days at 4 °C). It showed a higher polyphenols content than commercial colourants. Its antioxidant activity was 0.707 mmol Trolox eq. g(-1) plant dry weight, 69.5 times higher than red carrot. The three colourants were applied to colour yogurts, giving pinky tonalities. The colour did not change evidently (ΔE*(ab) < 3) when stored under refrigeration during 1 month. CONCLUSIONS: T. moroderi can be a source of anthocyanin-rich food colourant (E-163) with both high polyphenols content and high antioxidant activity. This colourant gives a stable colour to a yogurt during 1 month. These results expand the use of natural colourants.

La palmera datilera y la palmera canaria en la medicina tradicional de España / The date palm and canary islands date palm in the traditional herbal medicine of Spain

En la actualidad son muy pocos los usos vigentes. Aunque los dátiles son la materia utilizada con mayor frecuencia, también se han empleado la savia, el polen y el cogollo tierno o palmito. Los dátiles de Phoenix dactylifera se utilizaron como analgésico y para tratar la anemia y trastornos digestivos, o para fortalecer las encías, en el tratamiento de la disfunción eréctil y como afrodisiacos, para facilitar el parto y calmar los dolores postparto, y tratar el prolapso de la matriz o para el exceso de flujo menstrual. También se utilizaron como diuréticos, para la disuria y en trastornos de la vejiga. El uso que más claramente ha persistido es el tratamiento de diversos problemas respiratorios. En uso externo se utilizaron para tratar problemas de la piel, heridas, hemorragias y hemorroides. De la palmera de Canarias (Phoenix canariensis), especialmente en la isla de la Gomera, la savia cruda o guarapo, su concentrado o miel de palma y los resultantes de su fermentación (vino de palma) se consumen como alimento y también se utilizan como diurético, remedio de trastornos génitourinarios, digestivo, para infecciones de la cavidad bucal, expectorante, antitusígeno y para las irritaciones de garganta. En el Toledo de Al-Andalus las espatas de P. dactylifera se utilizaron, hace casi mil años, en el tratamiento de la debilidad, los dolores, nefritis, las enfermedades de la vejiga, trastornos hepáticos (también como preventivo), diarrea, trastornos digestivos, dolores en el abdomen y en el estómago, excesivo sangrado menstrual, úlceras en la piel y sarna, dolores articulares y trastornos cardiacos. La fitoterapia racional debería prestar atención a este recurso, considerar la evidencia científica disponible (farmacológica e incluso clínica) e incorporarlo a nuestro repertorio terapéutico (AU)

O uso medicinal da tamareira e seus produtos foi relativamente comum em Espanha, tendo alcançado o topo da diversidade e importância durante a Idade Média, tanto no Al-Andalus como nos territórios cristãos da fronteira norte, mas foram-se perdendo progressivamente. Estudou-se a evolução histórica dos usos medicinais da tamareira e da tamareira das Ilhas Canárias, tanto na Península Ibérica como nas ilhas Canárias e Baleares .Actualmente, são muito poucos os usos que se mantêm. Relativamente à parte utilizada, as tâmaras são as mais referiadas, mas também existem registos para a seiva, pólen e palmito. As tâmaras de Phoenix dactylifera foram usados como analgésicos, e para o tratamento de anemia e distúrbios digestivos, ou para fortalecer as gengivas, no tratamento da disfunção eréctil e como afrodisíacos, para facilitar o parto e acalmar as dores pós-parto, para tratamento do prolapso uterino ou do fluxo menstrual excessivo. As tâmaras também foram utilizados como diuréticos em disúria e distúrbios da bexiga e são ainda utilizados para o tratamento de vários problemas respiratórios. Externamente foram usados para tratar problemas de pele, feridas, hemorragias e hemorróidas. Da tamareira das Ilhas Canárias (Phoenix canariensis), especialmente na ilha de La Gomera, a seiva (localmente conhecida por guarapo), o seu concentrado (mel de palma), e os produtos resultantes da sua fermentação (vinho de palma) consomem-se como alimentos mas também se utilizam como diuréticos, para tratamento de problemas genito-urinários e digestivos, para infecções orais, como expectorante, antitússico e para tratar irritações da garganta. Há quase mil anos, em Toledo, usavam-se as espatas de P. dactylifera no tratamento de fraqueza, dores, nefrites, doenças da bexiga, doenças do fígado (também em prevenção), diarreia, distúrbios digestivos, dores no abdômen e estômago, fluxo menstrual excessivo, úlceras de pele e sarna, dores articulares e problemas cardíacos.A fitoterapia racional deveria prestar atenção a este recurso, considerar a evidencia científica disponível (farmacológica e mesmo clínica) e incorporá-lo no nosso repertório terapêutico

In Spain the medicinal use of date palm and its products has been relatively common, reaching the highest level of diversity and importance during the Middle Ages, both in Al Andalus and the Christian territories of the northern border. However, uses have become less common since then. Here the historical evolution of medicinal uses of date palm and Canary Island palm in both the Iberian Peninsula and the Canary and Balearic islands are reviewed. At present there are very few reported uses. The dates are the most commonly used product, but the sap, pollen and tender bud of palm (palmito) are also used. The dates of Phoenix dactylifera were used as analgesic, and to treat anaemia and digestive disorders, to strengthen the gums, and in the treatment of erectile dysfunction and as an aphrodisiac, to facilitate childbirth and soothing postpartum pains and treating matrix prolapse or excessive menstrual flow. Dates were also used as diuretics in dysuria and bladder disorders and are still used for the treatment of various respiratory problems. Externally they were used to treat skin problems, wounds, bleeding and haemorrhoids. Canary Palm (Phoenix canariensis) raw juice or sap, or concentrated palm juice, or fermented juice (palm wine) are consumed, especially on the island of La Gomera, as food and are also used as diuretic, as a remedy for genitourinary, digestive, for oral infections, as an expectorant, antitussive and to treat cavity and throat irritations disorders. Almost a thousand years ago in Al-Andalus' Toledo, spathes of P. dactylifera were used, in the treatment of weakness, pain, nephritis, bladder diseases, liver disorders, diarrhea, digestive disorders, pain in the abdomen and stomach, excessive menstrual bleeding, skin ulcers and scabies , joint pain and heart disorders. Modern rational Phytotherapy should pay closer attention to this resource and its potential, considering the available scientific evidence (pharmacological and even clinical) and incorporate it into our modern therapeutic repertoire (AU)

Beverage and culture. "Zhourat", a multivariate analysis of the globalization of a herbal tea from the Middle East.

The "Zhourat" herbal tea consists of a blend of wild flowers, herbs, leaves and fruits and is a typical beverage of Lebanon and Syria. We aim to evaluate cultural significance of "Zhourat", to determine cultural standards for its formulation including key ingredients and to determine acceptable variability levels in terms of number of ingredients and their relative proportions, in summary what is "Zhourat" and what is not "Zhourat" from an ethnobotanical perspective. For this purpose we develop a novel methodology to describe and analyse patterns of variation of traditional multi-ingredient herbal formulations, beverages and teas and to identify key ingredients, which are characteristics of a particular culture and region and to interpret health claims for the mixture. Factor analysis and hierarchical clustering techniques were used to display similarities between samples whereas salience index was used to determine the main ingredients which could help to distinguish a standard traditional blend from a global market-addressed formulation. The study revealed 77 main ingredients belonging to 71 different species of vascular plants. In spite of the "Zhourat's" highly variable content, the salience analysis resulted in a determined set of key botanical components including Rosa x damascena Herrm., Althaea damascena Mouterde, Matricaria chamomilla L., Aloysia citrodora Palau, Zea mays L. and Elaeagnus angustifolia L. The major health claims for "Zhourat" as digestive, sedative and for respiratory problems are culturally coherent with the analysis of the traditional medicinal properties uses of its ingredients.

What is in a name? The need for accurate scientific nomenclature for plants.

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: To avoid ambiguities and error, ethnopharmacological and any other research on plants requires precise and appropriate use of botanical scientific nomenclature. AIMS: This paper explores problems and impacts of ambiguous or erroneous use of botanical scientific nomenclature in ethnopharmacological studies. It suggests how the frequency and impact of such errors can be reduced. APPROACH AND METHODS: We assessed 214 articles published in the three first volumes of the Journal of Ethnopharmacology in 2012: 140(1) to 141 (3) and 214 articles in Phytomedicine (2012-2013): 19 (5) to 20 (7). RESULTS: Amongst the articles reviewed 308 articles cited plant names incorrectly. Among the articles studied 9178 Latin scientific names were cited and 3445 were incorrect in some respect. Simple principles applied in a systematic way and used together with open-access reference resources could help authors, referees and editors of ethnopharmacological, phytochemical, toxicological and clinical studies to reduce ambiguity about the identity and name of the species involved and thus significantly improve the quality of the final publication. CONCLUSIONS: We have identified a series of key steps needed to solve the taxonomic ambiguities and errors. Aside from reinforcing existing policies, journals will have to implement better tools to ensure the proper authentication of materials. The new electronic publishing environments offer novel ways to develop such botanical-taxonomic tools.

Nutritional and antioxidant properties of wild edible plants and their use as potential ingredients in the modern diet.

Thirteen species of wild edible plants belonging to 11 botanical families consumed in the traditional Mediterranean diet were evaluated. Sanguisorba minor, Quercus ballota and Sedum sediforme showed the highest hydrophilic total antioxidant activity (H-TAA) and total phenols. Asparagus acutifolius, Allium ampeloprasum, Foeniculum vulgare and Malva sylvestris presented high levels of potassium, Malva and Asparagus are interesting due to their zinc content, and Urtica urens contains a high content of calcium. Sensory analysis indicated that fruits from Q. ballota could be considered very sweet and plants of Crithmum maritimum and Oxalis pes-caprae are very acidic. Moreover, testers highlighted the salty taste of C. maritimum. Mesembryanthemum nodiflorum and Mesembryanthemum cristalinum, the spicy taste of A. ampeloprasum, and the aroma of F. vulgare. Our results indicate that increased consumption of the investigated plant species could provide health benefits. Moreover, due to their sensorial properties, they could be used as new ingredients to improve the diversity in modern diet and highly creative cuisine.

Árnica: a multivariate analysis of the botany and ethnopharmacology of a medicinal plant complex in the Iberian Peninsula and the Balearic Islands.

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: Medicinal plant complexes of different species sharing vernacular names, morphological and aromatic characteristics and uses are common in traditional medicine of different cultures. A quantitative methodology as a tool for ethnopharmacological studies is presented for systematically analyzing morphological and therapeutic features shared by several species integrating such complexes. AIM OF THE STUDY: The aim of this paper is to apply a novel methodology to determine whether complexes are homogeneous and species within the complexes are completely interchangeable or not. Moreover, to find out if those species giving the name to the complex are also those which provide a large number of complex descriptors. For this purpose we study the complex of medicinal plant species which share the vernacular name "Árnica" in the Iberian Peninsula and the Balearic Islands, through the systematic recording of past and current local therapeutic uses and administration forms, plant-parts and localities where the different species are used. Being a newly introduced name in the region, "Árnica" offers an interesting field to study the genesis and dynamics of ethnopharmacological categories and medicinal plant complexes. METHODS: A systematic review of the botanical, ethnobotanical and ethnopharmacological literature from 1895 to 2010 and of databases was performed in order to obtain information on the use of plants locally named as "Árnica" or with binomials that include the word "Árnica", in the Iberian Peninsula and the Balearic Islands. RESULTS: The "Árnica" complex includes 32 different plant species in the Iberian Peninsula, belonging to six families of Angiosperms, which partially share morphological characteristics and therapeutic properties. These are some of the most popular medicinal species of the Iberian Peninsula and are mainly used to treat inflammation, wounds, hematoma, and contusion. The vegetal materials are primarily macerated or decocted, and the methods of administration are plasters, washes, frictions or direct application of the plant. CONCLUSIONS: Medicinal plant complexes are frequent in ethnopharmacological contexts and require being clearly detected, and systematically studied. Plant species within each complex are only partly interchangeable because the sharing of characters, including medicinal uses, is low. "Árnica" medicinal plant complex is extremely dynamic in the Iberian Peninsula. In less than two hundred years up to 32 different plant species belonging to six different plant families became labeled "Árnica". Medical staff was extremely influential in the adoption of "Árnica" as a vernacular name between 1785 and 1864 in Spain and Portugal but not in the repertory of uses adopted for the plants within the complex. In terms of total descriptors shared in the complex, Arnica montana L. is less relevant than other three species, belonging to the Inuleae Cass. tribe, of the Asteraceae (Chiliadenus glutinosus (L.) Fourr., Inula montana L. and Dittrichia viscosa (L.) Greuter). Thus "Árnica" complex is labeled by three different Inuleae Cass. species and receives the name from a fourth Madieae Jeps. species (Arnica montana L.).

Evidencia histórica sobre la génesis y difusión del concepto de "Árnica" en Europa Occidental / Historical evidence on the genesis and spread of the concept of "arnica" in Western Europe

El concepto de "árnica" está ligado a diferentes especies de la familia Asteráceas o incluso de otras familias. Era desconocido para los clásicos greco-romanos y tampoco se mencionó en los textos de la Alta Edad Media. Lo introdujo el editor de la obra Physica de Santa Hildegarda de Bingen, en 1533, para referirse a una planta con propiedades medicinales, mágicas y fabulosas. La especie Arnica montana L., fue descrita por Linneo en 1753. Alcanzó gran éxito en el siglo XVIII en el tratamiento de golpes e inflamaciones y se popularizó a lo largo de los siglos XIX y XX. Estudiamos la nomenclatura del árnica en la Europa Central y Occidental en lenguas germánicas (alemán, walser o tisch, moqueno) y romances (francoprovenzal, occitano, francés, italiano, ladino, español, catalán y portugués) y la evolución del concepto en diferentes autores botánicos. Esto nos permite concluir que los usos del árnica, muy arraigados en el mundo alpino, son recientes en el mediterráneo (segunda mitad del Siglo XVIII), llegando a la medicina popular a través de médicos y farmacéuticos (AU)

The concept of "árnica" is linked to different species of Asteraceae or other plant families. Unknown to the Classic Greeks and Romans it was not cited in the Early Medieval texts. It was first introduced in 1533 by the editor of St. Hildegard’s Physica to name a magical plant species. Arnica montana L., was described by Linneus in 1753. It was introduced during the 18th century in the medicine for the treatment of inflammation and hematoma, becoming widely used in the 19th and 20th centuries. The nomenclature of Arnica in Western and Central Europe is analyzed in Germanic (German, Walser or Tisch, Mochene) and Romance languages (Francoprovençal, Occitan, French, Italian, Ladino, Spanish, Catalan and Portuguese) and the evolution of the concept in different authors. This allows us to conclude that the use of Arnica is deeply rooted in the Alpine traditions, whereas in the Mediterranean is recent (2nd half of the 18th century), reaching the folk-medicine through physicians and pharmacists (AU)

O conceito de "arnica" está ligada a diferentes espécies da família Asteraceae e, inclusivamente a espécies de outras famílias. Era desconhecido para os clássicos greco-romanos e também não é mencionado nos textos da Alta Idade Média. Foi introduzido pelo editor da Physica de Santa Hildegarda de Bingen, em 1533, para se referir a uma planta com propriedades medicinais, mágicas e fabulosas. A espécie Arnica montana L., foi descrita por Lineu em 1753. Alcançou grande sucesso no século XVIII para o tratamento de feridas e inflamações e tornou-se popular durante os séculos XIX e XX. Estudámos a classificação de arnica na Europa Central em línguas germânicas (alemão, walser ou tisch, moqueno) e românicas (franco-provençal, occitano, francês, italiano, ladino, espanhol, catalão e português) e da evolução do conceito em diferentes autores botânicos. Isso permitenos concluir que as utilizações da arnica, muito arreigadas na zona Alpina, são recentes na região do Mediterrâneo (segunda metade do século XVIII), chegando à medicina popular através de médicos e farmacêuticos (AU)

A Comparative Assessment of Zootherapeutic Remedies From Selected Areas in Albania, Italy, Spain and Nepal.

Zootherapy is the treatment of human ailments with remedies derived from animals and their products. Despite its prevalence in traditional medical practices worldwide, research on this phenomenon has often been neglected in comparison to medicinal plant research. Interviews regarding zootherapeutic traditions were conducted with informants from Albania, Italy, Nepal and Spain. We identified 80 species used in zootherapeutic remedies, representing 4 phyla in the animal kingdom: Annelida, Arthropoda, Chordata, and Mollusca. Remedies were ranked by consensus indices. Our studies show that the selection of medicinal fauna is mediated by human subsistence patterns. Concepts of health and disease differ among our study sites in the Mediterranean and Asia, and these differences also play a substantive role in the selection and use of animal-based remedies.

'Local Food-Nutraceuticals': bridging the gap between local knowledge and global needs.

Food use is changing very fast all over the world. This and other changes (e.g. reduced physical activity, increased longevity) result in novel health risks for the populations in European countries and beyond. Also, in recent decades the convenience food market has grown dramatically and offers novel opportunities for small and large industries alike. Simultaneously, there is a dramatic and irrevocable loss of the local knowledge which forms the basis of many cultural traditions (traditional food knowledge--TFK). The Mediterranean region is well known for a dietary tradition commonly called 'Mediterranean diet(s)', which is renowned for health benefits based among others on widely consumed foods and beverages. While the focus of research has mostly been on the more widely used elements of the Mediterranean diets (especially olive oil and red wine), in this review the focus is on 'local food'. These are ingredients, which are gathered, grown or produced locally and prepared into dishes, which often represent local specialities. Such food is derived from animals, fungi and plants, but in this paper the main subject is food of botanical origin. Particularly important among these local foods are vegetables and salads derived from wild greens (gathered food plants--GFPs) and local cultivars of fruit trees and shrubs. In this review we discuss the theoretical basis (including the concept of traditional knowledge systems) and general approach of an EU-funded multidisciplinary ethnobotanicalpharmacological project focusing on the use of such local resources in several regions of the Mediterranean including the ethnobotanical documentation of food products of selected communities in southern Italy, Spain, Greece (mostly Crete), the identification of extracts/pure compounds (leads for new health food supplements) with potent activity on a series of in vitro targets, especially ones relevant to assess for antioxidant activity, the more detailed in vivo study of some lead extracts and lastly the dissemination of such TFK in local/national languages.

Gathered Mediterranean food plants--ethnobotanical investigations and historical development.

The diversity of local Mediterranean food elements is not known in detail, but offers itself to search for new vegetables, salads, fruits and spices which could be used in to enrich diets outside their region of origin. Most amid those interesting local elements are edible wild plants and weeds. Ethnobotanical research has identified ca. 2,300 different plant and fungi taxa, which are gathered and consumed in the Mediterranean. Among these, >1,000 are only consumed in one single zone, therefore are strictly local. The percentage of local gathered food plant (GFP) taxa (present in <5 samples), is higher in the main centers of diversity at the periphery of the Mediterranean (Sahara, Alps, Caucasus, Canary Islands, the Levant). Islands (Sicily, Sardinia, Crete, Cyprus) also show a high proportion. Endemism of GFP taxa only accounts for a limited number of these 'ethnobotanical endemics' (only ca. 350 are endemic/ endangered species). On the other hand, only a few taxa--30 occurring in >20 samples--are consumed in most of the Mediterranean. Most have been analyzed in the Local Food- Nutraceuticals project. The ca. 800 GFP taxa that occur in more than the 5% of localities show a geographical pattern that permits one to recognize seven geographical groups. These groups show relationships with types of Mediterranean diet and could also be related with human genetic polymorphism through long-term co-evolution in a geographical mosaic pattern.

Disseminating knowledge about 'Local Food Plants' and 'Local Plant Foods'.

Ethnobotanical approaches to the study of Mediterranean food plants offer novel ways for analyzing and preserving traditional knowledge and agrobiodiversity in the Mediterranean area. This article highlights our strategy to increase the awareness within traditional knowledge systems and encourage the continuous evolution of it, avoiding the loss of substantial parts of the local cultural and biological diversity. The strategy is part of a broader stream of thought, which does attempt to disseminate information locally in a multitude of ways, e.g. through a range of publications in rural or urban zones, to people with or without formal education, to children or the elderly. This article is a very personal account of the experience of the authors, but there is an urgent need to assess the impact of such activities on a broader level, and, also, to reassess the impact researchers have on the communities. Our clear impression in all field sites has been that the simple fact that such traditional knowledge systems are the focus of scientific investigation are an essential element of giving renewed sociocultural value to such knowledge and that activities like the ones described here are of great interest to the communities we worked in.